Background
Since the beginning of British colonial rule in 1885, seeds of division were sown, where colonists favoring certain ethnic minorities over the Burman majority disrupted the traditional power dynamics and planted deep mistrust between communities. The British relied heavily on ethnic minorities like the Karen, Kachin, and Chin, granting them seats in the colonial legislature and the military while excluding the Burmans, thus creating an ethnically divided society. Upon negotiating independence in 1948, Myanmar was a fractured nation, with its ethnic groups competing for autonomy and recognition. This disunity led to immediate insurgencies, and a repetitive cycle of conflict that the newly independent government failed to moderate. This history laid the foundation for Myanmar’s ongoing cultural conflicts, which continue to influence and shape the nation’s complex political landscape today.
A 1962 military coup led by General Ne Win only deepened these divides. As the military took control, ethnic identities were further suppressed, and brutal campaigns with the intent of national unity were launched. Ne Win’s regime initiated forced assimilation policies, economic mismanagement, and a relentless drive to maintain the military in control of the country. For instance, the teaching of minority languages in schools was banned and ethnic minorities were forced to adopt Burmese culture and traditions. Moreover, Ne Win nationalized all major industries, banks, and trade, which led to widespread poverty, and the collapse of Myanmar’s once thriving rice export economy. Furthermore, to maintain military control, Ne Win’s government imprisoned political opponents without trial and brutally repressed uprisings, such as the 1988 violent repression on pro-democracy protests, where thousands of students, monks, and civilians were killed or arrested. This repression resulted in the alienation of ethnic groups and a further worsening of the conflict.
Even during periods of partial democratization, such as the 2010 reforms that allowed limited civilian governance, the military retained significant power, undermining efforts to address the ethnic injustices or establish a federal system that could accommodate the goals of the country’s diverse communities. The military’s continued human rights abuses, including the 2017 Rohingya crisis when a massive surge of violence forced the displacement of more than 742,000 people, fueled further unrest.
In November 2020, there was a brief period of progressive political reform when Nobel laureate Daw Aung San Suu Kyi’s civilian party won Myanmar’s general election. Suu Kyi had been a prominent figure in Myanmar’s struggle for democracy, recognized for her nonviolent methods of resistance against the military rule. However, while she had attempted to guide Myanmar towards a more democratic society, Suu Kyi received accusations of human rights abuses against the Rohingya people and criticism for a questionable power-sharing arrangement with the military, which retained significant control over ministries and nearly a quarter of parliamentary seats. As a result of these challenges, her leadership was short-lived. A mere three months later, the coup was launched, and the junta seized full control of the country.
Presently, Myanmar is consumed by a state of civil war under the military junta. The country’s hopes for peace and stability have been overcome by the escalating conflict, leaving the future uncertain, and the path back to democracy increasingly incredibly complex.
Figures
Under the junta, over 2.5 million people have been internally displaced, separating families and ethnic communities. Moreover, over 100,000 civilians have been forced into exile into neighboring countries such as Bangladesh, Thailand, and Malaysia to escape the violence.
The violence of the war has additionally resulted in heavy casualties, with over 50,000 people killed since the conflict began, including civilians, ethnic minorities, and political insurgents. Reports from organizations such as the United Nations and Amnesty International have documented widespread human rights abuses, including indiscriminate shelling, airstrikes on civilian areas, sexual abuse, and targeted killings, contributing to the ongoing humanitarian crisis. According to the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project, Myanmar’s civil war is the most violent of the 50 conflicts the organization reports on.
Recent Efforts
Despite Myanmar’s ongoing upheaval, resistance forces have united in an effort against the military junta, displaying the spirit of the Burmese. The People’s Defense Forces (PDF), ethnic armed organizations, and local militias have emerged as key players, with over a dozen ethnic groups seizing control of various provinces from the military. However, despite the resilience of these insurgent groups, they too have been confronted with a cloud of controversy due to conflicts between different resistance forces and a question of ethics surrounding the crimes they have committed in avenging their country.
The PDF, formed by the National Unity Government, an exiled government, is leading a guerrilla war against the junta, launching ambushes and targeting military outposts. Moreover, ethnic militias such as the Karen National Union and Kachin Independence Army have intensified their decades-long fights for autonomy from the Burmese government, capturing authority over provinces and training new civilian resistance fighters.
Local resistance groups have conducted bombings and raids, challenging the military even in heavily guarded areas. Together, these forces have claim to have established liberated safe zones that, if realized, may offer at least momentary shelter.
As Myanmar’s civil war unfolds, the future of the nation remains an unfinished novel, shaped by the unwavering determination of its people as well as the complex powers at play. As the world watches, the critical question is no longer who will win this battle, but also how the scars of the brutal war will shape Myanmar’s identity. Moreover, the question of whether a unified vision for a peaceful future will ever be realized is raised. The conversation surrounding Myanmar’s fate is ongoing, leaving the world to wonder: how will the next chapter of this tortuous history unfold?
By Frances Carlson
